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Es ist zwar gewiss nicht einfach, die Steuersysteme verschiedener Staaten miteinander zu vergleichen, weil die Begriffe nicht überall gleich definiert werden. Im grossen und ganzen wird man dennoch sagen können, dass sich die Schweiz mit ihren drei Steuerebenen gegenüber den wichtigsten europäischen Ländern mit vergleichbarer wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung durch einen bedeutend höheren Anteil der direkten Steuern am Gesamtsteueraufkommen beziehungsweise durch eine verhältnismässig geringe indirekte Besteuerung auszeichnet.

Die Steuerrechtstheorie geht davon aus, dass die indirekte Besteuerung zahlreiche Vorteile aufweist. Vor allem kann man sagen, dass sie Steuerbetrug und Steuerflucht eher zu verhindern vermag, relativ schmerzlos ist (der Konsument nimmt die Steuerbelastung bei einem Handelsgeschäft kaum wahr), sich der internationalen Konkurrenz besser anpasst (dies gilt besonders bei Steuern wie der Mehrwertsteuer) und geeignetere Voraussetzungen für die Wirtschaftspolitik bietet, weil sie die für Investitionen erforderliche Ersparnisbildung nicht trifft.

Umgekehrt ist es richtig - wie der Bundesrat in Beantwortung der Interpellation Strahm Rudolf (92.3216) treffend festgestellt hat -, dass die indirekte Besteuerung unerwünschte soziale Auswirkungen zeitigt. Angesichts von Volkswirtschaften, die wohl oder übel immer stärker integriert sein werden, scheint es dennoch wünschenswert, dass sich die Schweiz in bezug auf das Verhältnis von direkten und indirekten Steuern nicht allzusehr von ihren wichtigsten Handelspartnern unterscheidet.

Zur Veranschaulichung hier einige Zahlen, in Prozenten:

direkteindirekte Besteuerung

Schweiz7327

BRD6040

Italien6040

Frankreich4357

Niederlande5545

Natürlich müsste man im Hinblick auf einen vor allem auch für den Steuerzahler brauchbaren Vergleich die Gesamtheit der Steuern auf allen Ebenen - also auf nationaler, regionaler und lokaler Ebene - berücksichtigen.

","affair_title",5000,"19923476_5","Eingereichter Text","

Der Bundesrat wird gebeten, im Zusammenhang mit der Initiative \"zur Abschaffung der direkten Bundessteuer\" folgende Fragen zu beantworten:

1. Wie hoch ist der Anteil der Einnahmen aus den direkten Steuern in der Schweiz im Verhältnis zum gesamten Steueraufkommen von Bund, Kantonen und Gemeinden?

2. Trifft es nicht zu, dass der Ertrag aus den direkten Steuern im Verhältnis zu demjenigen aus indirekten Steuern in der Schweiz höher ist als in den meisten oder gar in allen anderen Ländern des Europäischen Wirtschaftsraumes?

3. Kann der Bundesrat die in der Begründung der vorliegenden Interpellation angeführten Zahlenbeispiele bestätigen?

4. Zu welchen Mitteln greifen die anderen europäischen Staaten, deren wirtschaftlicher Entwicklungsstand mit dem unsrigen vergleichbar ist, um die \"ungerechten sozialen Auswirkungen\" der indirekten Steuern auszugleichen?

Ist die Steuergerechtigkeit für die oben genannten sowie für die übrigen europäischen Staaten ein weniger gewichtiges Anliegen als für die Schweiz? Wenn dies nicht zutrifft, wäre es wissenswert, wie diese Staaten - mit ihrem ungleich höheren Anteil an indirekten Steuereinnahmen, als ihn die Schweiz hat - dennoch den Forderungen nach gerechter Verteilung der Steuern entsprechend der Steuerbelastbarkeit nachkommen.

",4999,"19923476_14","Antwort BR / Büro","

1. In der Schweiz belief sich nach den OECD-Statistiken im Jahre 1990 der Anteil der indirekten Steuern auf 27,2 Prozent des gesamten Steueraufkommens, jener der direkten Steuern auf 72,8 Prozent.

2. Die indirekten Steuern betragen in der Schweiz 5,8 Prozent des Bruttoinlandprodukts (BIP). Damit rangiert unser Land weit hinter unseren wichtigsten Nachbarstaaten (Deutschland 10,4 Prozent, Italien 11 Prozent, Belgien, Luxemburg und Niederlande 11 bis 12 Prozent, Vereinigtes Königreich 12,7 Prozent, Frankreich und Österreich 13,7 Prozent), aber noch vor den Vereinigten Staaten mit 4,9 Prozent und Japan mit 4,2 Prozent.

Anders als die Interpellanten zu glauben scheinen, figuriert unser Land mit einer Belastung durch direkte Steuern (Gemeinden, Kantone und Bund) von 15,5 Prozent des BIP bloss auf Rang 15 der OECD-Staaten, weit hinter Staaten wie Luxemburg (24,6 Prozent), Belgien, Japan, dem Vereinigten Königreich und Norwegen (17 bis 18 Prozent), den Vereinigten Staaten und den Niederlanden (16,1 Prozent und 16,3 Prozent), ganz zu schweigen von Dänemark (30,8 Prozent), Schweden (27,1 Prozent) oder Neuseeland (25,3 Prozent). Italien (15,3 Prozent) und Österreich (14,2 Prozent) sind knapp hinter uns, während Deutschland (13,3 Prozent) und vorab Frankreich (10,6 Prozent) gemessen am BIP um ein Drittel tiefere direkte Steuern erheben. Dafür liegt die Quote der indirekten Steuern in Frankreich bei annähernd 14 Prozent und in Deutschland bei 10,4 Prozent des BIP.

Zusammenfassend zeigt uns der internationale Vergleich namentlich, dass unser Land zusammen mit den Vereinigten Staaten, Japan und Deutschland nach wie vor zu jenen Ländern gehört, in denen am wenigsten Steuern zu bezahlen sind, wie uns die nachstehende Tabelle zeigt:

Staat Gesamte Steuereinnahmen (ohne Sozialver-

sicherungsbeiträge) im Jahre 1990 in

Prozenten des Bruttoinlandprodukts

Dänemark 47,1

Schweden 41,2

Neuseeland 38,2

Luxemburg 36,4

Finnland 35,3

Norwegen 34,2

Kanada 31,8

Island 31,7

Irland 31,7

Australien 30,7

Grossbritannien 30,3

Belgien 29,3

Niederlande 28,3

Österreich 27,9

Italien 26,3

Griechenland 26,1

Portugal 25,0

Frankreich 24,3

Deutschland 23,7

Türkei 22,3

Spanien 22,2

Japan 22,1

Schweiz 21,3

Vereinigte Staaten 21,0

3. Die in der Begründung der Interpellation als Beispiel zitierten Zahlen geben die Grössenordnung des Verhältnisses zwischen direkter und indirekter Besteuerung korrekt wieder. Unberücksichtigt bleiben dabei die Sozialversicherungsbeiträge.

4. Unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Steuergerechtigkeit bleibt die direkte Steuer mit progressivem Steuersatz in allen OECD-Staaten ein bevorzugtes Instrument. Es gilt zu beachten, dass in zahlreichen Staaten die direkten Steuern progressiver ausgestaltet sind als bei uns, wo die Progression durch die Konkurrenz der Kantone und Gemeinden um die hohen Einkommen unvermeidbarerweise gebremst wird. Die Mitgliedstaaten der OECD haben sich verschiedene Lösungen ausgedacht, um zu versuchen, die regressive Wirkung der Mehrwertsteuer zu hemmen. Es sind dies vorab:

- Massnahmen innerhalb des Systems der Konsumsteuern: Anwendung von reduzierten Sätzen oder Nullsätzen für lebensnotwendige Güter wie Lebensmittel (Österreich, Belgien, Frankreich, Deutschland, Griechenland, Irland, Italien, Luxemburg, Niederlande, Portugal, Spanien und Grossbritannien).

- Massnahmen, die andere Teile des Steuersystems betreffen, wie die Gewährung einer Steuergutschrift in Kanada zugunsten von kleinen Einkommen; diese Gutschrift wird auf einer Schätzung der Ausgaben für lebensnotwendige Güter wie die Lebensmittel berechnet.

- Massnahmen ausserhalb des Steuersystems, wie die Erhöhung der Sozialleistungen zugunsten von Unterstützungsbedürftigen oder von Familien mit kleinen Einkommen. Diese Lösung wurde von den skandinavischen Ländern Ende der sechziger und Anfang der siebziger Jahre angewendet. Neuseeland ist 1986 anlässlich der Einführung eines Minimallohnes für die am wenigsten gut bezahlten Arbeitnehmer ebenfalls zu einem solchen System übergegangen.

- Von diesen verschiedenen Massnahmen beurteilen die Experten der OECD und des Internationalen Währungsfonds jene als die wirkungsvollsten, welche eine Kompensation über die Einkommenssteuern oder die Erhöhung der Sozialleistungen vorsehen.

Die Struktur der indirekten Steuern hat auch eine Umverteilungswirkung, namentlich wenn Luxusgüter oder Güter, welche die wirtschaftlich schwächsten Personen nicht konsumieren, zum Steuerobjekt gehören. Schliesslich betreiben gewisse Staaten mit Steuersätzen weit über den unsrigen eine Umverteilungspolitik zugunsten von Regionen und finanziell benachteiligten Bevölkerungsgruppen, die bei der Ermittlung des mehr oder weniger sozialen Charakters der verschiedenen Steuersysteme ebenfalls in Rechnung gestellt werden muss.

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options","sort_begin_date","Start","sort_end_date","End","sort_name","Name","facet_all","All","facet_yes","facet_no","facet_payment","Compensation","facet_body","facet_date_from","From","facet_date_to","To","sort_voting_date","Date","sort_voting_title","Title","facet_vote","Vote","vote_yes","vote_no","vote_abstention","Abstention","sort_date_start","Speech date","sort_date_end","End date","facet_has_video","With video","sort_begin","sort_end","sort_group_name","sort_active","facet_type","Type","facet_active","facet_party","facet_group","facet_gender","facet_chamber","Chamber","chamber_both","Both","facet_deceased","Deceased","sort_firstname","First name","people_title","no_people","No people found.","controls_per_page","Per page","facet_country","Country","facet_electoral_district","country_che","Switzerland","country_lie","Liechtenstein","also_active_in","controls_search_placeholder_people","Search people…","controls_search_placeholder_alignment","Search 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text.","controls_sort_status","Sorted by {field}, {direction}","sort_affair_date","Affair date","sort_role","Role","sort_affair_type","Affair type","sort_affair_number","Affair number","sort_valid_from","Valid from","sort_valid_to","Valid until","sort_version","facet_latest","Latest","gender_f","Female","gender_m","Male","gender_d","Diverse","lang_de","German","lang_fr","French","lang_it","Italian","lang_rm","Romansh","lang_en","English","lang_es","Spanish","bodies_title","affairs_title","no_bodies","No institutions found.","facet_has_parliament","With parliament","sort_canton","Canton","sort_position","Order","sort_population","Population","controls_search_placeholder_bodies","Search institutions…","controls_search_hint_bodies","Searches name, canton and key.","body_population","Residents","body_seats","Seats","controls_no_results","No matches for your search.","controls_loading","Loading results…","body_section_profile","Profile","body_has_parliament","Has parliament","body_languages","Languages","body_seats_legislative","Seats (legislative)","body_executive","Executive","body_seats_executive","Seats (executive)","body_consultations","Consultations","body_elections_votings","Elections & votings","body_flag","Flag","body_key_label","Body key","body_source_lang","Source language","body_people_directory_title","All people of this institution","body_composition_title","Current composition","body_chambers_title","Chambers","body_votings_title","no_votings","No recorded votings.","controls_search_placeholder_votings","Search votings…","controls_search_hint_votings","body_affairs_title","no_affairs","No recorded affairs.","affair_untitled","Untitled affair","affair_long_title","Full title","affair_number","Number","affair_official_record","affair_external_id","External ID","affair_agenda_section","Agenda items","controls_search_placeholder_affairs","Search affairs…","controls_search_hint_affairs","Searches affair title and affair number.","sort_affair_title","facet_state","State","view_all_votings","View all votings","view_all_affairs","View all affairs","external_link","External link","docs_title","docs_loading","Searching documents…","section_docs","no_docs","No documents.","view_all_docs","View all documents","controls_search_placeholder_docs","Search documents…","controls_search_hint_docs","Searches name and category.","facet_category","Category","facet_format","Format","facet_lang","facet_case","Case sensitive","facet_word","Whole word","facet_match_on","facet_match_off","section_events","no_events","No recorded events.","view_all_events","View full timeline","controls_search_placeholder_events","Search events…","controls_search_hint_events","Searches title, actor and details.","facet_actor_type","Actor type","event_untitled","Event","texts_title","texts_loading","Searching texts…","section_texts","no_texts","No texts.","view_all_texts","View all texts","controls_search_placeholder_texts","Search texts…","controls_search_hint_texts","Searches type and body text.","sort_type","text_untitled","Text","facet_position_country","facet_position_canton","facet_position_city","City","facet_position_commune","Commune","facet_position_other","Other","votings_title","voting_result_section","voting_decision","Decision","voting_meaning_yes","A yes means","voting_meaning_no","A no means","voting_affair","voting_chart_title","How they voted","voting_chart_alt","Seat map of {count} members, coloured by {mode}. {summary}","voting_table_alt","Table of how {count} members voted, one row per member, with their party and parliamentary group.","chart_export","chart_export_title","Export chart","chart_export_failed","Export failed.","chart_exporting","Exporting…","chart_download","Download","chart_close","chart_fullscreen","Fullscreen","chart_title","chart_title_ph","Optional title","chart_subtitle","Subtitle","chart_subtitle_ph","Optional subtitle","chart_colors","Colours & labels","chart_color_for","Colour for","chart_label_for","Label for","chart_reset","chart_order","chart_output","Output","chart_format","chart_theme","Theme","chart_theme_light","Light","chart_theme_dark","Dark","chart_size","Size","chart_options","Options","chart_show_legend","Show legend","chart_transparent","Transparent background","chart_interactive","Interactive","chart_credits","Credit","voting_chart_no_votes","No votes recorded.","voting_chart_seats","seats","voting_chart_no_seatmap","No seat data available.","voting_chart_col_person","Person","voting_chart_col_party","voting_chart_col_group","voting_chart_col_vote","voting_chart_by_party","Vote by party","voting_chart_by_party_seats","Seats by party","voting_chart_colour_by","Colour seats by","voting_chart_majority","Majority","voting_chart_edit","Edit & export","voting_chart_seat_note","Seat positions are illustrative, not the real chamber layout. Open the editor to rearrange the colours, labels and order, and export.","speeches_title","speeches_loading","Searching speeches…","speech_person","Speaker","speech_body","Institution","speech_affair","speech_meeting","groups_title","no_groups","No groups found.","group_untitled","Untitled group","section_meetings","no_meetings","No recorded meetings.","view_all_meetings","View all meetings","meetings_title","meeting_untitled","meeting_upcoming","Upcoming","facet_time","When","facet_upcoming","facet_past","Past","group_abbreviation","Abbreviation","group_description","Description","group_official_record","Official page","group_contact","member_unknown","section_votings","interests_title","interest_details","Details","interest_person","Declared by","interest_body","Granting body","interest_role","interest_type","interest_group","interest_place","Place","interest_period","Period","meeting_details","meeting_type","meeting_state","meeting_number","meeting_location","Location","meeting_period","meeting_group","meeting_body","group_type","description","controls_search_placeholder_meetings","Search meetings …","controls_search_hint_meetings","Name, location or description","section_agendas","no_agendas","No agenda items.","view_all_agendas","View all agenda items","agenda_untitled","speech_speaker_unknown","video","doc_untitled","Document","doc_body","doc_affair","doc_meeting","doc_agenda","section_contributors","Contributors","no_contributors","No contributors.","view_all_contributors","View all contributors","sort_number","topics_title","Most-used words","topics_intro","The words this person uses most across their speeches, with common filler words removed. Tile size shows how often a word is used.","topics_all_time","All time","topics_last_4y","Last 4 years","topics_last_8y","Last 8 years","topics_from","topics_to","topics_speeches","topics_words","words (filtered)","topics_distinct","distinct words","topics_uses","uses","topics_alt","Treemap of the {count} most-used words, sized by how often each is used. {ctx}","topics_table_alt","Table of the {count} most-used words and how often each is used. {ctx}","topics_table_toggle","Show as table","topics_table_word","Word","topics_empty","No speeches with usable text in this period. Try widening the range.","loyalty_title","Party loyalty","loyalty_subtitle","Share of a member's votes cast against their group's majority line (higher = more independent). Abstentions count as a position.","loyalty_axis","Dissent rate: share of votes against own group","loyalty_dissent","dissent","loyalty_ballots","votes","loyalty_empty","No votes in this period meet the thresholds for a loyalty score. Widen the range.","loyalty_chart_alt","Beeswarm plot of the dissent rate of {count} members, one dot per member, coloured by party. {ctx}","loyalty_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their votes, dissents and dissent rate. {ctx}","loyalty_col_member","loyalty_col_party","loyalty_col_group","loyalty_col_ballots","loyalty_col_dissents","Against","loyalty_col_rate","Dissent","loyalty_from","loyalty_to","loyalty_scale","Scale","loyalty_scale_log","Log","loyalty_scale_linear","Linear","cohesion_title","Group cohesion","cohesion_hint","mean Agreement Index (1 = unanimous)","section_alignment","Voting alignment","no_alignment","Not enough shared votes to compare.","view_all_alignment","View full alignment","alignment_agreed_of_shared","agreed on {agreed} of {shared} shared votes","sort_agreement","Agreement","sort_shared","Shared votes","facet_min_shared","Min. shared","min_shared_10","≥ 10","min_shared_20","≥ 20","min_shared_50","≥ 50","min_shared_100","≥ 100","section_body_alignment","body_alignment_subtitle","How members of this chamber vote relative to one another, from the votes they have in common. In the map, members who vote alike sit close together and opponents far apart. Colours are parties, so blocs and coalitions show up as clusters. The grid gives the average agreement between each pair of parties (the diagonal is each party's own internal cohesion).","alignment_from","alignment_to","alignment_view","View","alignment_view_scatter","Map","alignment_view_heatmap","Party grid","alignment_empty","Not enough votes in this window to build the model.","alignment_window_note","Most meaningful within a single legislative period: the model compares members from the votes they have in common. If the window spans an election or a change in composition, members with different terms barely overlap and positions become less comparable.","alignment_no_parties","No party groups to compare in this window.","alignment_scatter_alt","Scatter plot of {count} members placed by how similarly they voted, coloured by party. {ctx}","alignment_pairs","pairs","alignment_heatmap_note","Each cell is the average agreement between members of the two parties (diagonal = a party's internal cohesion). ± is the 95% confidence range and n the number of member-pairs behind it. A small range over many pairs means the alignment is well-established; a wide range means it's only suggestive.","alignment_heatmap_alt","Grid of the average voting agreement between {count} parties. {ctx}","alignment_members_heading","Members","alignment_members_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their agreement with the chamber and with their own party. {ctx}","alignment_col_member","alignment_col_party","alignment_col_votes","alignment_col_chamber","Aligns with chamber","alignment_col_party_align","Within party","alignment_zoom_in","Zoom in","alignment_zoom_out","Zoom out","alignment_zoom_reset","Reset zoom","alignment_filters","Filters","section_lobby","Lobby network","lobby_subtitle","The organizations members of this chamber declare in their register of interests, and where those ties overlap. In the network, members are dots (coloured by party) and organizations shared by two or more members are squares. Members who share the same organizations pull together. The breakdown shows how many mandates are paid versus unpaid, and who holds the most.","lobby_empty","No declared interests for this chamber in this window.","lobby_no_shared","No organizations are shared by two or more members here. See the breakdown.","lobby_network_alt","Network graph of {members} members and the {orgs} organizations they share, linked by declared interests. {ctx}","lobby_mandates","mandates","lobby_members_tied","members","lobby_unknown","Unknown","lobby_org_node","Organization","lobby_payment_heading","Paid vs unpaid mandates","lobby_top_orgs","Most-shared organizations","lobby_top_members","Members by mandates","discussion_title","Speech profiles","discussion_intro","Where members sit on a latent axis derived purely from the words they use in their speeches (Wordfish scaling).","discussion_calculating","Scaling speeches…","lobby_calculating","Computing lobby network…","discussion_error","The speech scaling could not be computed.","discussion_converged","Model converged","discussion_not_converged","Model did not fully converge. Read positions with extra caution.","discussion_members_scored","Members scored","discussion_vocab","Vocabulary","discussion_window","Window","discussion_show_all","discussion_show_reliable","Reliable only","discussion_methodology","How this is computed","discussion_range_label","Time range","discussion_range_1y","1 year","discussion_range_2y","2 years","discussion_range_4y","4 years","discussion_range_8y","8 years","discussion_plot_alt","Beeswarm plot of {count} members placed along a word-choice axis, one dot per member. {ctx}","discussion_plot_caption","Each dot is one member, placed by the words they use in their speeches. Members who reach for the same distinctive words sit close together; members who talk very differently sit far apart. So a member's spot isn't assigned by us; it comes out of how they actually speak. For example, someone who keeps saying “tax”, “budget” and “spending” lands far from someone who mostly says “asylum”, “border” and “integration”. Hover any dot for its details. Filled dots have enough speech to place reliably; hollow rings spoke too little, so read their position with caution.","discussion_empty","No speeches are available for this parliament, so its members can't be placed on the axis. This scaling reads the words members actually speak, and the data set only holds speech transcripts for a few parliaments: the federal chambers and a handful of cantons such as Bern, Basel-Stadt or St. Gallen. You can also try a longer time range above.","discussion_empty_sparse","There is too little speech transcript text for this parliament to place its members on the axis. Try a longer time range above.","discussion_pole_a","One pole","discussion_pole_b","Other pole","discussion_col_party","discussion_key_filled","Enough text (reliable)","discussion_key_ring","Below the word floor (low confidence)","discussion_align_title","Does the axis track party?","discussion_align_hint","How much of the spread in positions is explained by party membership (η²): 100% = parties are perfectly separated, ~0% = party tells you nothing.","discussion_align_strong","parties are clearly separated","discussion_align_moderate","parties are partly separated","discussion_align_weak","party barely explains the axis","discussion_poles_title","What the axis is made of","discussion_poles_hint","The words that most pull members towards each pole. The axis only means something once you read these. Its direction is arbitrary.","discussion_no_party","No party","discussion_col_name","discussion_col_position","Position","discussion_col_words","Words","discussion_col_speeches","discussion_low_confidence","low confidence","discussion_table_title","discussion_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their position on the word-choice axis. {ctx}","discussion_read_title","How to read this","discussion_read_direction","The axis direction is arbitrary: Wordfish finds the split, not which side is “left” or “right”. Read the word poles to see what each side means.","discussion_read_uncertainty","Positions are standardized, so the spread is a convention, not a real distance. Wider error bars (and hollow dots) mean less certainty, so don't over-read those members.","discussion_read_confound","Speech style reflects role as much as ideology: committee chairs, ministers and frequent speakers can land at a pole because of what they do, not only what they believe.","organizations_title","organizations_none","No organizations.","org_members","org_mandates","org_bodies","org_members_heading","org_members_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their party, body, role, payment and period. {ctx}","org_no_members","No members.","org_col_member","org_col_party","org_col_body","org_col_role","org_col_payment","Payment","org_col_period","sort_members","sort_mandates","Mandates","interest_unknown","lobby_panel_person","Declared organizations","lobby_panel_org","Members with this mandate","lobby_table_heading","Who is tied to what","lobby_table_explain","The full matrix marks every member against every shared organization: one dot per declared tie, the exhaustive view of who is tied to what.","lobby_table_large","For this chamber that is","lobby_table_cells","cells","lobby_table_show","Show table","lobby_table_alt","Table marking each of {count} members against the {orgs} organizations they are tied to, one dot per declared tie. {ctx}","lobby_select_hint","Select a member or organization to see its ties.","close","not_found_person","Person not found","not_found_body","Parliament not found","not_found_affair","Affair not found","not_found_group","Committee or group not found","not_found_voting","Voting not found","not_found_meeting","Meeting not found","not_found_interest","Interest not found","not_found_organization","Organization not found","not_found_text","Text not found","not_found_doc","Document not found","not_found_speech","Speech not found","not_found_hint","There is no entry with the ID {id}. It may have been removed, or the link may be outdated.","not_found_back","Back to the overview","about","About","faq","FAQ","section_title","section_title_bodies","section_title_affairs","section_title_votings","section_title_texts","section_title_docs","section_subtitle_search","section_subtitle_discussion",{"_1558":1559,"_1575":761,"_1576":1577,"_1578":1579,"_1580":935,"_1265":523,"_19":323,"_83":527,"_1581":530,"_1564":333,"_1582":1583,"_1584":732,"_1371":283,"_79":293,"_1561":435,"_85":303,"_81":533,"_87":313,"_1585":1045,"_1586":1179,"_1587":1215,"_1588":1179,"_1589":1590,"_1591":1179,"_1592":1593,"_1594":523,"_1595":700,"_1596":1179,"_1597":1579,"_1598":527,"_1565":402,"_1599":1600,"_1178":1179,"_1601":640,"_1191":1179,"_77":538,"_1602":1399,"_1603":1257,"_1604":1293,"_1605":1583,"_1606":1383,"_1566":343,"_1607":1375,"_1608":1179},"section_switcher",{"_1556":1557,"_1558":1559,"_1560":283,"_21":479,"_79":293,"_1561":435,"_1562":369,"_19":323,"_87":313,"_1563":303,"_1564":333,"_1565":402,"_1566":343,"_1567":1568,"_1569":1570,"_1571":1572,"_1573":1574},"section_title_speeches","section_title_groups","section_title_interests","section_title_meetings","section_title_organizations","label_section","Section","home","Home","people","affairs","groups","documents","interests","meetings","organizations","group_parliament","Actors","group_proceedings","Proceedings","group_records","Records","group_lobbying","Lobbying","search","eyebrow","Data on {{name}}","overview","Overview","personal_data","memberships","access_badges","Lobby","images","texts_overview","text_details","docs_overview","doc_details","votings_overview","Voting","voting_details","voting_diagram","Diagram","voting_tally","speeches_overview","speech_details","groups_overview","contributions","interests_overview","Interest","meetings_overview","vocabulary","loyalty","alignment","lobby","discussion","organizations_overview","org_details",{"_1666":1667,"_1668":1669,"_1610":1670,"_234":1671},"intro",{"_1612":1613,"_1614":1615,"_1616":1617,"_1618":1619,"_1620":1621,"_1622":1623,"_1624":1625},"en",{"_1626":1661,"_1628":1662,"_1630":1663,"_1632":1664,"_1634":1665},"de",{"_1626":1656,"_1628":1657,"_1630":1658,"_1632":1659,"_1634":1660},"fr",{"_1626":1651,"_1628":1652,"_1630":1653,"_1632":1654,"_1634":1655},"it",{"_1626":1646,"_1628":1647,"_1630":1648,"_1632":1649,"_1634":1650},"es",{"_1626":1641,"_1628":1642,"_1630":1643,"_1632":1644,"_1634":1645},"pt",{"_1626":1636,"_1628":1637,"_1630":1638,"_1632":1639,"_1634":1640},"rm",{"_1626":1627,"_1628":1629,"_1630":1631,"_1632":1633,"_1634":1635},"cookie","Nus duvrain mo cookies essenzials e funcziunals. Nagina analitica, nagin tracking.","dataLang","La Svizra ha quatter linguas naziunalas, e questas datas datti en pliras da quellas. Intgins records èn plurilings, auters mo en ina lingua. Vus pudais tscherner en tge lingua ch'il cuntegn vegn mussà; sche vossa tscherna n'è betg disponibla per in record, vegnan duvradas las autras linguas en in urden da prioritad fix. Quai è independent da la lingua da l'interfatscha. As lascha reglar sut Configuraziuns › Lingua dal cuntegn (sura a dretga).","alt","Questa pagina è era disponibla per rumantsch.","switch","Mussar per rumantsch","dismiss","Betg pli mussar","Utilizamos apenas cookies essenciais e funcionais. Sem análises, sem rastreio.","A Suíça tem quatro línguas nacionais, e estes dados existem em várias delas. Alguns registos estão em várias línguas, outros apenas numa. Pode escolher em que idioma os conteúdos são apresentados; quando a sua escolha não está disponível para um registo, as restantes línguas são usadas por uma ordem de prioridade fixa. Isto é independente do idioma da interface. Configure em Definições › Idioma dos conteúdos (canto superior direito).","Esta página também está disponível em português.","Ver em português","Não mostrar novamente","Solo utilizamos cookies esenciales y funcionales. Sin análisis, sin seguimiento.","Suiza tiene cuatro lenguas nacionales, y estos datos existen en varias de ellas. Algunos registros están en varias lenguas, otros en una sola. Puede elegir en qué idioma se muestra el contenido; cuando su elección no está disponible para un registro, se utilizan las demás lenguas en un orden de prioridad fijo. Esto es independiente del idioma de la interfaz. Configúrelo en Ajustes › Idioma del contenido (arriba a la derecha).","Esta página también está disponible en español.","Ver en español","No volver a mostrar","Utilizziamo solo cookie essenziali e funzionali. Nessuna analisi, nessun tracciamento.","La Svizzera ha quattro lingue nazionali e questi dati esistono in diverse di esse. Alcune voci sono in più lingue, altre in una sola. Puoi scegliere in quale lingua mostrare i contenuti; se la tua scelta non è disponibile per una voce, vengono usate le altre lingue secondo un ordine di priorità prestabilito. Questo è indipendente dalla lingua dell'interfaccia. Impostabile in Impostazioni › Lingua del contenuto (in alto a destra).","Questa pagina è disponibile anche in italiano.","Vedi in italiano","Non mostrare più","Nous utilisons uniquement des cookies essentiels et fonctionnels. Aucune analyse, aucun suivi.","La Suisse a quatre langues nationales, et ces données existent dans plusieurs d'entre elles. Certaines entrées sont en plusieurs langues, d'autres dans une seule. Vous pouvez choisir la langue d'affichage du contenu ; si votre choix n'est pas disponible pour une entrée, les autres langues sont utilisées selon un ordre de priorité défini. Ceci est indépendant de la langue de l'interface. Réglable dans Paramètres › Langue du contenu (en haut à droite).","Cette page est aussi disponible en français.","Voir en français","Ne plus afficher","Wir verwenden nur essenzielle, funktionale Cookies. Keine Analyse, kein Tracking.","Die Schweiz hat vier Landessprachen, und diese Daten liegen in mehreren davon vor. Manche Einträge sind mehrsprachig, andere nur in einer Sprache. Sie können wählen, in welcher Sprache die Inhalte angezeigt werden; ist Ihre Wahl für einen Eintrag nicht verfügbar, werden die übrigen Sprachen in einer festen Prioritätsreihenfolge verwendet. Dies ist unabhängig von der Oberflächensprache. Einstellbar unter Einstellungen › Inhaltssprache (oben rechts).","Diese Seite ist auch auf Deutsch verfügbar.","Auf Deutsch anzeigen","Nicht mehr anzeigen","We use only essential, functional cookies. No analytics, no tracking.","Switzerland has four national languages, and this data comes in several of them. Some records are in multiple languages, some in only one. You can choose which language the content is shown in; when your choice isn't available for a record, the remaining languages are used in a set priority order. This is independent of the interface language. Set it under Settings › Content language (top right).","This page is also available in English.","View in English","Don't show again","settings",{"_1734":1735,"_1736":1737,"_1738":1100,"_1739":1740,"_1741":1102,"_1742":1104,"_1743":1744,"_1745":1746,"_1747":1748,"_1749":1750,"_1751":1752,"_588":589,"_1753":1754,"_1755":1756,"_1757":1758,"_1759":1760,"_1761":1762},"nav",{"_1558":1680,"_1681":1682,"_1683":638,"_1684":1685,"_1686":1687,"_1567":1568,"_1569":1570,"_1571":1572,"_1573":1574,"_1560":283,"_21":479,"_1562":369,"_1561":435,"_79":293,"_1565":402,"_19":323,"_87":313,"_1563":303,"_1564":333,"_1566":343,"_1688":1673,"_1689":1690,"_1536":1537,"_1691":1692,"_1538":1539,"_1693":1694,"_1695":1696,"_1697":1698,"_1699":1700,"_1701":1702,"_1703":1704,"_1705":1706,"_1707":1708,"_1709":1710,"_1711":1712,"_1713":1714,"_1715":1716,"_1717":1718,"_1719":1720,"_1721":1722,"_1723":1724,"_1725":1726,"_1727":1677,"_1728":1729,"_1730":1731,"_1732":1733},{"_1626":1661,"_1628":1662,"_1630":1663,"_1632":1664,"_1634":1665},{"_1672":1673,"_1674":1675,"_1676":1677,"_1678":1679},"project.title","Project","project.desc","About parlhub: what the portal is, answers to common questions, and how the data fits together.","experiments.title","Experiments","experiments.desc","Experimental analyses and methodology showcases on parlhub, including the Wordfish scaling of parliaments from their speeches.","parlhub home","skip_to_content","Skip to main content","explore","start","Start here","start_desc","Quicklinks to chambers, cantons and communes","project","project_desc","The project at a glance","about_desc","What parlhub is and who is behind it","faq_desc","Answers to common questions","sustainability","Sustainability","sustainability_desc","How parlhub is hosted and what it costs the planet","accessibility","Accessibility","accessibility_desc","What works, what doesn't, and how to report a barrier","traffic_stats","Traffic statistics","traffic_stats_desc","Which parts of the site get requested, and by whom","imprint","Imprint","imprint_desc","Who runs parlhub, contact, and the licenses","github","GitHub","github_desc","The project's source code on GitHub","data_guide","Data guide","data_guide_desc","Every kind of data, in plain terms, with examples","data_map","Data map","data_map_desc","How the data fits together, at a glance","methodology","Methodology","methodology_desc","How each figure is calculated, with links to the code","experiments","experiments_desc","Experimental analyses and methodology write-ups","wordfish","Wordfish scaling","wordfish_desc","Placing members on an axis by the words in their speeches","menu_label","Settings","appearance","Appearance","theme","theme_system","System","theme_light","theme_dark","font_size","Font size","font_size_decrease","Decrease font size","font_size_increase","Increase font size","high_contrast","High contrast","grayscale","Grayscale","interface_language","Interface","content_language","Content language","content_language_auto","Auto (follow interface)","content_language_note","Language of the displayed data (names, titles, texts). 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