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Bomben mit Streumunition bilden eine Waffenkategorie, die zum Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung während und nach Konflikten dringend und vollständig verboten werden muss.

Streubomben bestehen aus einem Behälter (Bombe, Rakete, Granate), der je nach Modell mit einem Dutzend bis mehreren Hundert Mini-Bomben, den sogenannten Streumunitionen, gefüllt ist. Streubomben werden auf dem Luftweg (Kampfflugzeuge) oder auf dem Landweg (Kanonen, Raketenwerfer, Mörser) abgeschossen: Der Behälter öffnet sich in der Luft und stösst die Streumunitionen aus, die beim Kontakt mit dem Boden oder dem anvisierten Ziel explodieren.

Im Gegensatz zu Antipersonenminen, die als \"lauernde\" Waffen gelten, sind Streubomben \"Angriffs\"-Waffen. Sie sind darauf ausgerichtet, eine Zone, in der ein oder mehrere Ziele lokalisiert wurden, abzudecken und unzugänglich zu machen. Je nach anvisiertem Ziel werden Streumunitionen mit verschiedenen Wirkungen verwendet: Zerstörung von Menschen, Fahrzeugen, Infrastrukturen oder Fahrbahnen, Brand, Vergiftung. Gewisse Streumunitionsmodelle kombinieren diese Wirkungen.

Aufgrund ihrer Konzeption und ihrer Beschaffenheit stellen die Streumunitionen für die Zivilpersonen eine doppelte Bedrohung dar:

- Auf flächendeckende Wirkung ausgerichtet werden sie beim Abwurf zufällig auf bisweilen bis zu mehreren Hektaren umfassenden Flächen verstreut. So können sie zivile Zonen treffen; vor allem wenn sie bewusst in stadtnahen Zonen verwendet werden, wie dies im Irak der Fall war.

- 5 bis 30 Prozent der Streumunitionen detonieren beim Aufprall nicht. Sie bleiben auf dem Boden liegen und können wie Antipersonenminen durch die kleinste Berührung ausgelöst werden. Folglich töten und verstümmeln sie Menschen lange nach dem Ende der Konflikte.

Während der letzten drei bewaffneten Konflikte (Kosovo, Afghanistan, Irak) wurden sie millionenfach abgeschossen und haben unter der Bevölkerung ein wahres Blutbad angerichtet. Dabei stellen die nicht detonierten Streumunitionen Tag für Tag weiterhin eine tödliche Gefahr dar.

Zurzeit werden weltweit mehrere Milliarden Streumunitionen gelagert. Ihre Verwendung dürfte ein weit grösseres Problem verursachen als heute die Antipersonenminen.

Für die Opfer gibt es keinen Unterschied zwischen einer Mine und einer nicht explodierten Streumunition. Beide richten die gleichen Scheusslichkeiten an, und beide treten das humanitäre Völkerrecht mit Füssen. Denn sie machen keinen Unterschied zwischen Zivil- und Militärpersonen. Die Antipersonenminen sind inzwischen verboten, während Streumunitionen als legal gelten und unbeschränkt eingesetzt werden können.

Was das internationale Recht sagt

Laut den Regeln des internationalen Rechtes und insbesondere des humanitären Völkerrechtes dürfen sich Zerstörungsaktionen während eines Krieges nie absichtlich gegen die Zivilbevölkerung richten. Die von kriegführenden Parteien verwendeten Waffen müssen so eingesetzt werden, dass sie zwischen Zivil- und Militärpersonen unterscheiden und in einem angemessenen Verhältnis zur ermittelten Bedrohung stehen. Es dürfen nur militärische Objekte bombardiert werden.

Die Verwendung von \"Kriegssprengstoffen\" (zu denen auch die Streubomben gehören) wird von der Uno-Konvention über bestimmte klassische Waffen aus dem Jahr 1980 geregelt.

Am 28. November 2003 haben die Unterzeichner dieser Konvention ein Zusatzprotokoll (Protokoll V) angenommen. Darin wird gefordert, dass die an einem bewaffneten Konflikt beteiligten Parteien sämtliche explosiven Kriegsrückstände beseitigen müssen, die nach Ende der Feindseligkeiten weiterhin die Zivilpersonen, die Kräfte zur Einhaltung des Friedens und das humanitäre Personal bedrohen.

Allerdings stellt dieser Text die militärischen Interessen über das Leben der Zivilpersonen: Weder gibt er den Konfliktparteien für die Beseitigung der tödlichen Verschmutzung eine Frist vor noch regelt er das Problem der Verwendung von Streubomben.

Analyse

Einleitung

Die Streumunitionen wurden hauptsächlich für Kriege entwickelt, die nie stattgefunden haben. Dies sind Konflikte, bei denen auf beiden Seiten ein grosses Aufgebot von Panzerfahrzeugen besteht. Die Streumunitionen, sogenannte flächendeckende Waffen, sind von Natur aus ungenau. Sie wurden hauptsächlich während dem Kalten Krieg als Antwort auf die ermittelten Arten von militärischer Bedrohung, anstelle von Präzisionsmunitionen, entwickelt.

Die Streumunitionen in den jüngsten Konflikten

Streumunitionen wurden in mindestens zwanzig Ländern in Europa, Asien, Afrika und Lateinamerika verwendet.

In jüngerer Zeit wurden 20 Millionen Streumunitionen während des Golfkriegs (1991), 295 000 in Ex-Jugoslawien/Kosovo (1999), 248 056 in Afghanistan (2001/02) und 2 Millionen im Irak (2003) verwendet (s. Fussnote 1).

Funktionsweise der Streumunitionen

Die Zielrichtung

Streumunitionen sind selten gesteuert, wenn sie aus ihrem Behälter austreten. Sie werden während des Falls aktiviert und prasseln nach dem Zufallsprinzip auf eine ausgedehnte Zone nieder. Jeder Mensch, der sich in dieser Zone aufhält, kann von einer Streumunition getroffen werden. In den jüngsten Konflikten wurden Streumunitionen wiederholt über bewohnten Gebieten abgeworfen.

Die Wirkungen

Die hauptsächlichen Funktionen von Streumunitionen sind die Zerstörung von Menschen und Fahrzeugen sowie das Auslösen von Bränden. Diese drei Funktionen können auch kumuliert auftreten. Sie zielen auf menschliche und gepanzerte Zielgruppen in der Streuzone ab und schlagen blind zu.

Die Blindgänger und ihre Opfer

Blindgänger sind Streumunitionen, die beim Einschlag nicht explodieren. Eine am Boden liegende Streumunition explodiert völlig unvorhergesehen bereits bei der ersten Berührung oder erst nach mehreren Manipulationen. Gleich wie die von der Schweiz und über 147 Staaten verbotenen Antipersonenminen detonieren die herumliegenden oder in Bäumen und Büschen hängenden Streumunitionen wenn sie berührt werden oder unabsichtlich auf sie eingewirkt wird. Streumunition verursacht besonders schwerwiegende Verletzungen und Verstümmelungen, die von der Mehrzahl ihrer Opfer nicht überlebt werden.

Zudem weckt das ungewöhnliche Aussehen der Streumunition die Neugierde der Menschen, die sie auffinden. Besonders häufig fallen ihnen Kinder zum Opfer. Aber auch humanitäre Minenräumer sind den Gefahren dieser heimtückischen Munition ausgeliefert.

Die Blindgängerrate

Die einzige Möglichkeit, eine effektive Blindgängerrate einzuschätzen, besteht im Vergleich zwischen der abgeschossenen Menge und der am Boden vorzufindenden Anzahl Streumunitionen. Daraus ergibt sich die ermittelte Rate, die zwischen 5 und über 50 Prozent schwankt. Letzteres hängt von verschiedenen Faktoren ab: Beschaffung, Herstellungsqualität, Lagerungs- und Transportbedingungen sowie Vektortyp, Abschusshöhe, Behälteröffnung, Wetterbedingungen, Art der Vegetation und des Bodens. Ausserdem verwirbelt die Detonationswelle der zuerst explodierten Munitionen die nachfolgenden Geschosse, was die Blindgängerrate weiter erhöht.

Die von den Herstellern angegebenen Blindgängerraten liegen weit unter den tatsächlichen Raten. Sie sind Ergebnis wissenschaftlicher Studien auf Schiessplätzen, welche den realen Verwendungsbedingungen nicht gerecht werden.

Indem Hersteller Werbung für zuverlässigere Streumunitionssysteme machen, geben sie zu, dass die Streumunitionen ein humanitäres Problem darstellen.

Tatsächlich ist es unmöglich, eine bestimmte mit den erwähnten Faktoren verbundene Blindgängerrate zu unterschreiten. Die festgestellten Mängel betreffen auch Streumunitionen, die mit Systemen zur Selbstzerstörung und Selbstneutralisierung ausgerüstet sind.

Die Zahl der Blindgänger

Geht man von der in Kosovo festgestellten Blindgängerrate von 15 Prozent aus, bleiben in jüngeren Konflikten gewaltige Mengen nicht detonierter Streumunitionen liegen, die jederzeit von einem Menschen unabsichtlich berührt werden und explodieren können:

- Golfkrieg (1991): 3 Millionen (Minenräumungen in Kuwait und im Irak sind immer noch im Gang);

- Ex-Jugoslawien/Kosovo/Bosnien (1989-1999): 44 250 bei den Nato-Bombardements, bei den Abwürfen von Ex-Jugoslawien ist die Anzahl Streumunitionen nicht bekannt;

- Afghanistan (2001/02): 37 208;

- Irak (2003): 300 000.

Produktion und Lager

34 Länder, auch die Schweiz, stellen 210 verschiedene Typen an Streumunitionen her. 73 Länder, darunter die Schweiz (s. Fussnote 2), lagern Streumunitionen. Allein der Lagerbestand der USA wird auf über eine Milliarde Streumunitionen geschätzt. Diese Grössenordnung kann auf die anderen Grossmächte übertragen werden. Aufgrund der in Kosovo festgestellten Rate von 15 Prozent würden allein die in den USA gelagerten Streumunitionen 150 Millionen Blindgänger hinterlassen. Das bedeutet ein Vielfaches der Gesamtzahl an Antipersonenminen, die heute im Boden vergraben sind und mühsam und mit grossem finanziellem Aufwand von der internationalen Gemeinschaft geräumt werden.

Bedrohungen für die Zivilbevölkerungen

Angesichts der riesigen Lagerbestände droht den Zivilbevölkerungen weltweit ein verstärkter Einsatz dieser Waffen. Die humanitären Auswirkungen sind vergleichbar mit denjenigen, die heute in von Antipersonenminen betroffenen Ländern festgestellt werden: Noch Jahre nach Kriegsende verstümmeln und töten sie Zivilisten und hinterlassen grosse Flächen unproduktives Land.

Die Konvention von 1980 über das Verbot oder die Einschränkung bestimmter klassischer Waffen (CCW)

Die CCW ist ein Uno-Gremium, das nach dem Prinzip des Konsens funktioniert. Diese Funktionsweise erwies sich im Jahr 1996 als unfähig, den Massakern und Verstümmelungen der Zivilbevölkerungen durch Antipersonenminen angemessen zu begegnen. Das Verbot der Antipersonenminen wurde durch den sogenannten Ottawa-Prozess konkretisiert.

Weder im Rahmen der CCW noch in sonstigen Diskussionen wird spezifisch über Streumunitionen verhandelt. Selbst wenn die CCW einen entsprechenden Verhandlungsauftrag erhielte, würde es das Konsensprinzip kaum möglich machen, bei der Regelung der humanitären Probleme von Streumunitionen bessere Ergebnisse zu erzielen als bei den Antipersonenminen. Es wäre illusorisch, auf die CCW zu zählen, um den Massakern und Verstümmelungen von Zivilpersonen durch Streumunitionen ein Ende zu setzen. In diesem Gremium verharren die Mitgliederstaaten auf dem Status quo und werden die humanitären Auswirkungen von Streumunition vermutlich nicht in den Griff bekommen.

Zusatzprotokoll V

Der Wortlaut des Zusatzprotokolls V über die explosiven Kriegsrückstände ist erstaunlich wenig verbindlich für die Staaten, die für das Zurücklassen dieser explosiven Abfälle verantwortlich sind: Die Fristen und Bedingungen für deren Entsorgung sind verschiedenen unverbindlichen Bedingungen unterworfen und stellen in keiner Weise eine angemessene Antwort auf die Streumunitionen dar.

Technische Lösungen

Die Diskussionen in der CCW über allfällige technische Präventionslösungen für eine verbesserte Zuverlässigkeit der Streumunitionen haben bis heute zu keinem Verhandlungsauftrag geführt. Die verschiedenartigen Interessen der Mitgliedstaaten und der Mangel an überzeugenden und für alle Staaten finanziell tragbaren Lösungen erlauben nicht, in naher Zukunft mit einer solchen Entwicklung zu rechnen. Noch weniger ist wahrscheinlich, dass verbindliche Massnahmen durch einen Konsens ergriffen werden.

Die von der Schweiz innerhalb der CCW vorgeschlagenen technischen Massnahmen für einen etwaigen internationalen Konsens betreffen bisher nicht die Zielsicherheit der einzelnen Streumunitionen. Diese würden weiterhin ungesteuert und zufällig auf eine weit ausgedehntere Fläche als das legitime militärische Ziel fallen. Die Option von gesteuerten Streumunitionen bleibt für die überwiegende Mehrheit der Staaten ausser Reichweite.

Was die technischen Massnahmen zur Senkung der Blindgängerrate betrifft, bleiben auch sie unverständlichen technischen Schwankungen unterworfen. So wurde im Mai 2004 bei einer internationalen Expertensitzung in Thun demonstriert, welche technischen Verbesserungen bei den Streumunitionen anzubringen seien. Während dieser Demonstration im Schiessstand funktionierten 75 Prozent der Selbstzerstörungsmechanismen nach dem Einschlag nicht. Dies beweist, wie verletzlich das System selbst unter besten Schiessbedingungen ist.

Das vollständige Verbot von Streumunitionen in der Schweiz

Von ihrer Beschaffenheit und Verwendung her unterschiedslos wirkende Waffen

Streumunitionen sind ungesteuerte Waffen, die ganze Landstriche abdecken sollen und somit unterschiedslos zuschlagen: Sie treffen ein weit grösseres Spektrum als das anvisierte Ziel und sind unfähig, eine zivile Position von einem militärischen Ziel zu unterscheiden.

Die immensen Lagerbestände kündigen eine Verwendung dieser Waffe in grossem Ausmass an. Der immer massivere Einsatz von Raketenwerfern und Artilleriesystemen erlaubt heute eine weit breitere Streuung der Streumunition.

Das anhaltende Problem der Blindgänger

Die nicht reduzierbare Blindgängerrate, die jeder industriellen Produktion sowie den äusserst variablen Umständen der Verwendung von Streumunitionen inhärent ist, stellt eine unvermeidliche Quelle von aktiven Munitionen dar. Diese können von potenziellen Opfern auch in Friedenszeiten ausgelöst werden, genau wie die heute in der Schweiz verbotenen Antipersonenminen. Die verschmutzten Gebiete bleiben während Jahrzehnten unnutzbar (wie beispielsweise in Laos).

Das Verbot in der Schweiz: eine historische humanitäre Bedeutung

Die Lagerung und die Verwendung von Streumunitionen verbreitet sich weltweit immer mehr. Die verheerenden Auswirkungen zu ignorieren ist heute nicht mehr vertretbar. Bereits 1976, nach dem Ausgang einer militärischen Expertensitzung in Lugano, haben die Schweiz und zwölf andere Staaten das Verbot von Streubomben gefordert.

Aufgrund ihrer Lage im Herzen von Europa ist unwahrscheinlich, dass die Schweiz jemals Streumunitionen zu ihrer eigenen Verteidigung verwenden wird. Auch kann die Herstellung von Streumunitionen für die Schweizer Waffenindustrie keinen entscheidenden Umsatz darstellen.

Mit dem vollständigen Verbot von Herstellung, Weitergabe, Besitz und Verwendung von Streumunitionen ergreift die Schweiz eine besonders sinnvolle Initiative. Sie ist von unbestreitbarer historischer und humanitärer Bedeutung, die gleichzeitig eine internationale Entwicklung in Richtung Aufgabe der Streumunitionen in die Wege leitet und unterstützt.

Fussnote 1: Human Rights Watch: \"Global overview of cluster munition use, production, stockpiling, and transfer\". Oktober 2005.

Fussnote 2: Human Rights Watch: \"Global overview of cluster munition use, production, stockpiling, and transfer\". Oktober 2005.

","affair_title",45660,"20050452_5","Eingereichter Text","

Gestützt auf Artikel 160 Absatz 1 der Bundesverfassung und Artikel 107 des Parlamentsgesetzes reiche ich folgende parlamentarische Initiative ein:

Das Bundesgesetz über das Kriegsmaterial (KMG) ist wie folgt zu ändern:

Kapitel 2 Verbot von bestimmten Waffen

....

Art. (9) Streumunitionen

Abs. 1

Es ist verboten, Streumunitionen zu entwickeln, herzustellen, zu vermitteln, zu erwerben, jemandem zu überlassen, ein- oder auszuführen, den Transit zuzulassen, zu lagern oder anderweitig über sie zu verfügen.

Abs. 2

Unbeschadet der allgemeinen Verpflichtungen nach Absatz 1 ist die Zurückbehaltung oder Weitergabe einer bestimmten Menge Streumunition zur Entwicklung von Such-, Räumungs- und Vernichtungsverfahren und für die Ausbildung in diesen Verfahren zulässig. Die Anzahl dieser Streumunitionen darf indessen die für die genannten Zwecke absolut erforderliche Mindestmenge nicht überschreiten.

Abs. 3

Als Streumunitionen sind all jene Munitionen zu betrachten, die sich zur Ausübung ihrer Funktion von einer Muttermunition lösen. Dies umfasst sämtliche Munitionen oder Sprengladungen, die konzipiert sind, um nach ihrem Abwurf oder Ausstossen von einer Mutter-Streubombe zu explodieren.

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Open the editor to rearrange the colours, labels and order, and export.","speeches_title","speeches_loading","Searching speeches…","speech_person","Speaker","speech_body","Institution","speech_affair","speech_meeting","groups_title","no_groups","No groups found.","group_untitled","Untitled group","section_meetings","no_meetings","No recorded meetings.","view_all_meetings","View all meetings","meetings_title","meeting_untitled","meeting_upcoming","Upcoming","facet_time","When","facet_upcoming","facet_past","Past","group_abbreviation","Abbreviation","group_description","Description","group_official_record","Official page","group_contact","member_unknown","section_votings","interests_title","interest_details","Details","interest_person","Declared by","interest_body","Granting body","interest_role","interest_type","interest_group","interest_place","Place","interest_period","Period","meeting_details","meeting_type","meeting_state","meeting_number","meeting_location","Location","meeting_period","meeting_group","meeting_body","group_type","description","controls_search_placeholder_meetings","Search meetings …","controls_search_hint_meetings","Name, location or description","section_agendas","no_agendas","No agenda items.","view_all_agendas","View all agenda items","agenda_untitled","speech_speaker_unknown","video","doc_untitled","Document","doc_body","doc_affair","doc_meeting","doc_agenda","section_contributors","Contributors","no_contributors","No contributors.","view_all_contributors","View all contributors","sort_number","topics_title","Most-used words","topics_intro","The words this person uses most across their speeches, with common filler words removed. Tile size shows how often a word is used.","topics_all_time","All time","topics_last_4y","Last 4 years","topics_last_8y","Last 8 years","topics_from","topics_to","topics_speeches","speeches","topics_words","words (filtered)","topics_distinct","distinct words","topics_uses","uses","topics_alt","Treemap of the {count} most-used words, sized by how often each is used. {ctx}","topics_table_alt","Table of the {count} most-used words and how often each is used. {ctx}","topics_table_toggle","Show as table","topics_table_word","Word","topics_empty","No speeches with usable text in this period. Try widening the range.","loyalty_title","Party loyalty","loyalty_subtitle","Share of a member's votes cast against their group's majority line (higher = more independent). Abstentions count as a position.","loyalty_axis","Dissent rate: share of votes against own group","loyalty_dissent","dissent","loyalty_ballots","votes","loyalty_empty","No votes in this period meet the thresholds for a loyalty score. Widen the range.","loyalty_chart_alt","Beeswarm plot of the dissent rate of {count} members, one dot per member, coloured by party. {ctx}","loyalty_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their votes, dissents and dissent rate. {ctx}","loyalty_col_member","loyalty_col_party","loyalty_col_group","loyalty_col_ballots","loyalty_col_dissents","Against","loyalty_col_rate","Dissent","loyalty_from","loyalty_to","loyalty_scale","Scale","loyalty_scale_log","Log","loyalty_scale_linear","Linear","loyalty_filters","Filters","cohesion_title","Group cohesion","cohesion_hint","mean Agreement Index (1 = unanimous)","section_alignment","Voting alignment","no_alignment","Not enough shared votes to compare.","view_all_alignment","View full alignment","alignment_agreed_of_shared","agreed on {agreed} of {shared} shared votes","sort_agreement","Agreement","sort_shared","Shared votes","facet_min_shared","Min. shared","min_shared_10","≥ 10","min_shared_20","≥ 20","min_shared_50","≥ 50","min_shared_100","≥ 100","section_body_alignment","body_alignment_subtitle","How members of this chamber vote relative to one another, from the votes they have in common. In the map, members who vote alike sit close together and opponents far apart. Colours are parties, so blocs and coalitions show up as clusters. The grid gives the average agreement between each pair of parties (the diagonal is each party's own internal cohesion).","alignment_from","alignment_to","alignment_view","View","alignment_view_scatter","Map","alignment_view_heatmap","Party grid","alignment_empty","Not enough votes in this window to build the model.","alignment_window_note","Most meaningful within a single legislative period: the model compares members from the votes they have in common. If the window spans an election or a change in composition, members with different terms barely overlap and positions become less comparable.","alignment_no_parties","No party groups to compare in this window.","alignment_scatter_alt","Scatter plot of {count} members placed by how similarly they voted, coloured by party. {ctx}","alignment_pairs","pairs","alignment_heatmap_note","Each cell is the average agreement between members of the two parties (diagonal = a party's internal cohesion). ± is the 95% confidence range and n the number of member-pairs behind it. A small range over many pairs means the alignment is well-established; a wide range means it's only suggestive.","alignment_heatmap_alt","Grid of the average voting agreement between {count} parties. {ctx}","alignment_members_heading","Members","alignment_members_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their agreement with the chamber and with their own party. {ctx}","alignment_col_member","alignment_col_party","alignment_col_votes","alignment_col_chamber","Aligns with chamber","alignment_col_party_align","Within party","alignment_zoom_in","Zoom in","alignment_zoom_out","Zoom out","alignment_zoom_reset","Reset zoom","alignment_filters","section_lobby","Lobby network","lobby_subtitle","The organizations members of this chamber declare in their register of interests, and where those ties overlap. In the network, members are dots (coloured by party) and organizations shared by two or more members are squares. Members who share the same organizations pull together. The breakdown shows how many mandates are paid versus unpaid, and who holds the most.","lobby_empty","No declared interests for this chamber in this window.","lobby_no_shared","No organizations are shared by two or more members here. See the breakdown.","lobby_network_alt","Network graph of {members} members and the {orgs} organizations they share, linked by declared interests. {ctx}","lobby_mandates","mandates","lobby_members_tied","members","lobby_unknown","Unknown","lobby_org_node","Organization","lobby_payment_heading","Paid vs unpaid mandates","lobby_top_orgs","Most-shared organizations","lobby_top_members","Members by mandates","discussion_title","Speech profiles","discussion_intro","Where members sit on a latent axis derived purely from the words they use in their speeches (Wordfish scaling).","discussion_calculating","Scaling speeches…","lobby_calculating","Computing lobby network…","discussion_error","The speech scaling could not be computed.","discussion_converged","Model converged","discussion_not_converged","Model did not fully converge. Read positions with extra caution.","discussion_members_scored","Members scored","discussion_vocab","Vocabulary","discussion_window","Window","discussion_show_all","discussion_show_reliable","Reliable only","discussion_methodology","How this is computed","discussion_range_label","Time range","discussion_range_1y","1 year","discussion_range_2y","2 years","discussion_range_4y","4 years","discussion_range_8y","8 years","discussion_plot_alt","Beeswarm plot of {count} members placed along a word-choice axis, one dot per member. {ctx}","discussion_plot_caption","Each dot is one member, placed by the words they use in their speeches. Members who reach for the same distinctive words sit close together; members who talk very differently sit far apart. So a member's spot isn't assigned by us; it comes out of how they actually speak. For example, someone who keeps saying “tax”, “budget” and “spending” lands far from someone who mostly says “asylum”, “border” and “integration”. Hover any dot for its details. Filled dots have enough speech to place reliably; hollow rings spoke too little, so read their position with caution.","discussion_empty","No speeches are available for this parliament, so its members can't be placed on the axis. This scaling reads the words members actually speak, and the data set only holds speech transcripts for a few parliaments: the federal chambers and a handful of cantons such as Bern, Basel-Stadt or St. Gallen. You can also try a longer time range above.","discussion_empty_sparse","There is too little speech transcript text for this parliament to place its members on the axis. Try a longer time range above.","discussion_pole_a","One pole","discussion_pole_b","Other pole","discussion_col_party","discussion_key_filled","Enough text (reliable)","discussion_key_ring","Below the word floor (low confidence)","discussion_align_title","Does the axis track party?","discussion_align_hint","How much of the spread in positions is explained by party membership (η²): 100% = parties are perfectly separated, ~0% = party tells you nothing.","discussion_align_strong","parties are clearly separated","discussion_align_moderate","parties are partly separated","discussion_align_weak","party barely explains the axis","discussion_poles_title","What the axis is made of","discussion_poles_hint","The words that most pull members towards each pole. The axis only means something once you read these. Its direction is arbitrary.","discussion_no_party","No party","discussion_col_name","discussion_col_position","Position","discussion_col_words","Words","discussion_col_speeches","discussion_low_confidence","low confidence","discussion_table_title","discussion_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their position on the word-choice axis. {ctx}","discussion_read_title","How to read this","discussion_read_direction","The axis direction is arbitrary: Wordfish finds the split, not which side is “left” or “right”. Read the word poles to see what each side means.","discussion_read_uncertainty","Positions are standardized, so the spread is a convention, not a real distance. Wider error bars (and hollow dots) mean less certainty, so don't over-read those members.","discussion_read_confound","Speech style reflects role as much as ideology: committee chairs, ministers and frequent speakers can land at a pole because of what they do, not only what they believe.","organizations_title","organizations_none","No organizations.","org_members","org_mandates","org_bodies","org_members_heading","org_members_table_alt","Table of {count} members with their party, body, role, payment and period. {ctx}","org_no_members","No members.","org_col_member","org_col_party","org_col_body","org_col_role","org_col_payment","Payment","org_col_period","sort_members","sort_mandates","Mandates","interest_unknown","lobby_panel_person","Declared organizations","lobby_panel_org","Members with this mandate","lobby_table_heading","Who is tied to what","lobby_table_explain","The full matrix marks every member against every shared organization: one dot per declared tie, the exhaustive view of who is tied to what.","lobby_table_large","For this chamber that is","lobby_table_cells","cells","lobby_table_show","Show table","lobby_table_alt","Table marking each of {count} members against the {orgs} organizations they are tied to, one dot per declared tie. {ctx}","lobby_select_hint","Select a member or organization to see its ties.","lobby_filters","lobby_error","The lobby network could not be computed.","lobby_clear_selection","Clear selection","close","not_found_person","Person not found","not_found_body","Parliament not found","not_found_affair","Affair not found","not_found_group","Committee or group not found","not_found_voting","Voting not found","not_found_meeting","Meeting not found","not_found_interest","Interest not found","not_found_organization","Organization not found","not_found_text","Text not found","not_found_doc","Document not found","not_found_speech","Speech not found","not_found_hint","There is no entry with the ID {id}. It may have been removed, or the link may be outdated.","not_found_back","Back to the overview","about","About","faq","FAQ","section_title","section_title_bodies","section_title_affairs","section_title_votings","section_title_texts","section_title_docs","section_subtitle_search","section_subtitle_discussion",{"_1668":1669,"_1685":851,"_1686":1687,"_1688":1689,"_1690":1038,"_1369":611,"_1343":411,"_78":615,"_1691":618,"_1674":421,"_1692":1693,"_1694":822,"_1476":371,"_74":381,"_1671":523,"_19":391,"_76":621,"_81":401,"_1695":1148,"_1696":1282,"_1697":1318,"_1698":1282,"_1699":1700,"_1701":1282,"_1702":1703,"_1704":611,"_1705":790,"_1706":1282,"_1707":1689,"_1708":615,"_1675":490,"_1709":1710,"_1281":1282,"_1711":728,"_1294":1282,"_72":626,"_1712":1504,"_1713":1361,"_1714":1399,"_1715":1693,"_1716":1488,"_1676":431,"_1717":1480,"_1718":1282},"section_switcher",{"_1666":1667,"_1668":1669,"_1670":371,"_70":567,"_74":381,"_1671":523,"_1672":457,"_1343":411,"_81":401,"_1673":391,"_1674":421,"_1675":490,"_1676":431,"_1677":1678,"_1679":1680,"_1681":1682,"_1683":1684},"section_title_speeches","section_title_groups","section_title_interests","section_title_meetings","section_title_organizations","label_section","Section","home","Home","people","affairs","groups","documents","interests","meetings","organizations","group_parliament","Actors","group_proceedings","Proceedings","group_records","Records","group_lobbying","Lobbying","search","eyebrow","Data on {{name}}","overview","Overview","personal_data","memberships","access_badges","Lobby","images","texts_overview","text_details","docs_overview","doc_details","votings_overview","Voting","voting_details","voting_diagram","Diagram","voting_tally","speeches_overview","speech_details","groups_overview","contributions","interests_overview","Interest","meetings_overview","vocabulary","loyalty","alignment","lobby","discussion","organizations_overview","org_details",{"_1776":1777,"_1778":1779,"_1720":1780,"_322":1781},"intro",{"_1722":1723,"_1724":1725,"_1726":1727,"_1728":1729,"_1730":1731,"_1732":1733,"_1734":1735},"en",{"_1736":1771,"_1738":1772,"_1740":1773,"_1742":1774,"_1744":1775},"de",{"_1736":1766,"_1738":1767,"_1740":1768,"_1742":1769,"_1744":1770},"fr",{"_1736":1761,"_1738":1762,"_1740":1763,"_1742":1764,"_1744":1765},"it",{"_1736":1756,"_1738":1757,"_1740":1758,"_1742":1759,"_1744":1760},"es",{"_1736":1751,"_1738":1752,"_1740":1753,"_1742":1754,"_1744":1755},"pt",{"_1736":1746,"_1738":1747,"_1740":1748,"_1742":1749,"_1744":1750},"rm",{"_1736":1737,"_1738":1739,"_1740":1741,"_1742":1743,"_1744":1745},"cookie","Nus duvrain mo cookies essenzials e funcziunals. Nagina analitica, nagin tracking.","dataLang","La Svizra ha quatter linguas naziunalas, e questas datas datti en pliras da quellas. Intgins records èn plurilings, auters mo en ina lingua. Vus pudais tscherner en tge lingua ch'il cuntegn vegn mussà; sche vossa tscherna n'è betg disponibla per in record, vegnan duvradas las autras linguas en in urden da prioritad fix. Quai è independent da la lingua da l'interfatscha. As lascha reglar sut Configuraziuns › Lingua dal cuntegn (sura a dretga).","alt","Questa pagina è era disponibla per rumantsch.","switch","Mussar per rumantsch","dismiss","Betg pli mussar","Utilizamos apenas cookies essenciais e funcionais. Sem análises, sem rastreio.","A Suíça tem quatro línguas nacionais, e estes dados existem em várias delas. Alguns registos estão em várias línguas, outros apenas numa. Pode escolher em que idioma os conteúdos são apresentados; quando a sua escolha não está disponível para um registo, as restantes línguas são usadas por uma ordem de prioridade fixa. Isto é independente do idioma da interface. Configure em Definições › Idioma dos conteúdos (canto superior direito).","Esta página também está disponível em português.","Ver em português","Não mostrar novamente","Solo utilizamos cookies esenciales y funcionales. Sin análisis, sin seguimiento.","Suiza tiene cuatro lenguas nacionales, y estos datos existen en varias de ellas. Algunos registros están en varias lenguas, otros en una sola. Puede elegir en qué idioma se muestra el contenido; cuando su elección no está disponible para un registro, se utilizan las demás lenguas en un orden de prioridad fijo. Esto es independiente del idioma de la interfaz. 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Certaines entrées sont en plusieurs langues, d'autres dans une seule. Vous pouvez choisir la langue d'affichage du contenu ; si votre choix n'est pas disponible pour une entrée, les autres langues sont utilisées selon un ordre de priorité défini. Ceci est indépendant de la langue de l'interface. Réglable dans Paramètres › Langue du contenu (en haut à droite).","Cette page est aussi disponible en français.","Voir en français","Ne plus afficher","Wir verwenden nur essenzielle, funktionale Cookies. Keine Analyse, kein Tracking.","Die Schweiz hat vier Landessprachen, und diese Daten liegen in mehreren davon vor. Manche Einträge sind mehrsprachig, andere nur in einer Sprache. Sie können wählen, in welcher Sprache die Inhalte angezeigt werden; ist Ihre Wahl für einen Eintrag nicht verfügbar, werden die übrigen Sprachen in einer festen Prioritätsreihenfolge verwendet. Dies ist unabhängig von der Oberflächensprache. Einstellbar unter Einstellungen › Inhaltssprache (oben rechts).","Diese Seite ist auch auf Deutsch verfügbar.","Auf Deutsch anzeigen","Nicht mehr anzeigen","We use only essential, functional cookies. No analytics, no tracking.","Switzerland has four national languages, and this data comes in several of them. Some records are in multiple languages, some in only one. You can choose which language the content is shown in; when your choice isn't available for a record, the remaining languages are used in a set priority order. This is independent of the interface language. Set it under Settings › Content language (top right).","This page is also available in English.","View in English","Don't show again","settings",{"_1844":1845,"_1846":1847,"_1848":1203,"_1849":1850,"_1851":1205,"_1852":1207,"_1853":1854,"_1855":1856,"_1857":1858,"_1859":1860,"_1861":1862,"_676":677,"_1863":1864,"_1865":1866,"_1867":1868,"_1869":1870,"_1871":1872},"nav",{"_1668":1790,"_1791":1792,"_1793":726,"_1794":1795,"_1796":1797,"_1677":1678,"_1679":1680,"_1681":1682,"_1683":1684,"_1670":371,"_70":567,"_1672":457,"_1671":523,"_74":381,"_1675":490,"_1343":411,"_81":401,"_1673":391,"_1674":421,"_1676":431,"_1798":1783,"_1799":1800,"_1646":1647,"_1801":1802,"_1648":1649,"_1803":1804,"_1805":1806,"_1807":1808,"_1809":1810,"_1811":1812,"_1813":1814,"_1815":1816,"_1817":1818,"_1819":1820,"_1821":1822,"_1823":1824,"_1825":1826,"_1827":1828,"_1829":1830,"_1831":1832,"_1833":1834,"_1835":1836,"_1837":1787,"_1838":1839,"_1840":1841,"_1842":1843},{"_1736":1771,"_1738":1772,"_1740":1773,"_1742":1774,"_1744":1775},{"_1782":1783,"_1784":1785,"_1786":1787,"_1788":1789},"project.title","Project","project.desc","About parlhub: what the portal is, answers to common questions, and how the data fits together.","experiments.title","Experiments","experiments.desc","Experimental analyses and methodology showcases on parlhub, including the Wordfish scaling of parliaments from their speeches.","parlhub home","skip_to_content","Skip to main content","explore","start","Start here","start_desc","Quicklinks to chambers, cantons and communes","project","project_desc","The project at a glance","about_desc","What parlhub is and who is behind it","faq_desc","Answers to common questions","sustainability","Sustainability","sustainability_desc","How parlhub is hosted and what it costs the planet","accessibility","Accessibility","accessibility_desc","What works, what doesn't, and how to report a barrier","traffic_stats","Traffic statistics","traffic_stats_desc","Which parts of the site get requested, and by whom","imprint","Imprint","imprint_desc","Who runs parlhub, contact, and the licenses","github","GitHub","github_desc","The project's source code on GitHub","data_guide","Data guide","data_guide_desc","Every kind of data, in plain terms, with examples","data_map","Data map","data_map_desc","How the data fits together, at a glance","methodology","Methodology","methodology_desc","How each figure is calculated, with links to the code","experiments","experiments_desc","Experimental analyses and methodology write-ups","wordfish","Wordfish scaling","wordfish_desc","Placing members on an axis by the words in their speeches","menu_label","Settings","appearance","Appearance","theme","theme_system","System","theme_light","theme_dark","font_size","Font size","font_size_decrease","Decrease font size","font_size_increase","Increase font size","high_contrast","High contrast","grayscale","Grayscale","interface_language","Interface","content_language","Content language","content_language_auto","Auto (follow interface)","content_language_note","Language of the displayed data (names, titles, texts). Independent of the interface; when a record isn't available, the next language is used.","content_language_priority","Priority",{"_1848":1874,"_1853":1875,"_1876":222,"_1877":198,"_1878":198,"_1879":222,"_1880":-5},"system",100,"show_cookie_consent_message","ui_high_contrast","ui_grayscale","msg_lang_hint","content_lang"]